Python Documentation contents — Python v3.2.6 documentation
- What’s New in Python
- What’s New In Python 3.2
- PEP 384: Defining a Stable ABI
- PEP 389: Argparse Command Line Parsing Module
- PEP 391: Dictionary Based Configuration for Logging
- PEP 3148: The concurrent.futures module
- PEP 3147: PYC Repository Directories
- PEP 3149: ABI Version Tagged .so Files
- PEP 3333: Python Web Server Gateway Interface v1.0.1
- Other Language Changes
- New, Improved, and Deprecated Modules
- elementtree
- functools
- itertools
- collections
- threading
- datetime and time
- math
- abc
- io
- reprlib
- logging
- csv
- contextlib
- decimal and fractions
- ftp
- popen
- select
- gzip and zipfile
- tarfile
- hashlib
- ast
- os
- shutil
- sqlite3
- html
- socket
- ssl
- nntp
- certificates
- imaplib
- http.client
- unittest
- random
- poplib
- asyncore
- tempfile
- inspect
- pydoc
- dis
- dbm
- ctypes
- site
- sysconfig
- pdb
- configparser
- urllib.parse
- mailbox
- turtledemo
- Multi-threading
- Optimizations
- Unicode
- Codecs
- Documentation
- IDLE
- Code Repository
- Build and C API Changes
- Porting to Python 3.2
- What’s New In Python 3.1
- What’s New In Python 3.0
- What’s New in Python 2.7
- The Future for Python 2.x
- Python 3.1 Features
- PEP 372: Adding an Ordered Dictionary to collections
- PEP 378: Format Specifier for Thousands Separator
- PEP 389: The argparse Module for Parsing Command Lines
- PEP 391: Dictionary-Based Configuration For Logging
- PEP 3106: Dictionary Views
- PEP 3137: The memoryview Object
- Other Language Changes
- New and Improved Modules
- Build and C API Changes
- Other Changes and Fixes
- Porting to Python 2.7
- Acknowledgements
- What’s New in Python 2.6
- Python 3.0
- Changes to the Development Process
- PEP 343: The ‘with’ statement
- PEP 366: Explicit Relative Imports From a Main Module
- PEP 370: Per-user site-packages Directory
- PEP 371: The multiprocessing Package
- PEP 3101: Advanced String Formatting
- PEP 3105: print As a Function
- PEP 3110: Exception-Handling Changes
- PEP 3112: Byte Literals
- PEP 3116: New I/O Library
- PEP 3118: Revised Buffer Protocol
- PEP 3119: Abstract Base Classes
- PEP 3127: Integer Literal Support and Syntax
- PEP 3129: Class Decorators
- PEP 3141: A Type Hierarchy for Numbers
- Other Language Changes
- New and Improved Modules
- Deprecations and Removals
- Build and C API Changes
- Porting to Python 2.6
- Acknowledgements
- What’s New in Python 2.5
- PEP 308: Conditional Expressions
- PEP 309: Partial Function Application
- PEP 314: Metadata for Python Software Packages v1.1
- PEP 328: Absolute and Relative Imports
- PEP 338: Executing Modules as Scripts
- PEP 341: Unified try/except/finally
- PEP 342: New Generator Features
- PEP 343: The ‘with’ statement
- PEP 352: Exceptions as New-Style Classes
- PEP 353: Using ssize_t as the index type
- PEP 357: The ‘__index__’ method
- Other Language Changes
- New, Improved, and Removed Modules
- Build and C API Changes
- Porting to Python 2.5
- Acknowledgements
- What’s New in Python 2.4
- PEP 218: Built-In Set Objects
- PEP 237: Unifying Long Integers and Integers
- PEP 289: Generator Expressions
- PEP 292: Simpler String Substitutions
- PEP 318: Decorators for Functions and Methods
- PEP 322: Reverse Iteration
- PEP 324: New subprocess Module
- PEP 327: Decimal Data Type
- PEP 328: Multi-line Imports
- PEP 331: Locale-Independent Float/String Conversions
- Other Language Changes
- New, Improved, and Deprecated Modules
- Build and C API Changes
- Porting to Python 2.4
- Acknowledgements
- What’s New in Python 2.3
- PEP 218: A Standard Set Datatype
- PEP 255: Simple Generators
- PEP 263: Source Code Encodings
- PEP 273: Importing Modules from ZIP Archives
- PEP 277: Unicode file name support for Windows NT
- PEP 278: Universal Newline Support
- PEP 279: enumerate()
- PEP 282: The logging Package
- PEP 285: A Boolean Type
- PEP 293: Codec Error Handling Callbacks
- PEP 301: Package Index and Metadata for Distutils
- PEP 302: New Import Hooks
- PEP 305: Comma-separated Files
- PEP 307: Pickle Enhancements
- Extended Slices
- Other Language Changes
- New, Improved, and Deprecated Modules
- Pymalloc: A Specialized Object Allocator
- Build and C API Changes
- Other Changes and Fixes
- Porting to Python 2.3
- Acknowledgements
- What’s New in Python 2.2
- Introduction
- PEPs 252 and 253: Type and Class Changes
- PEP 234: Iterators
- PEP 255: Simple Generators
- PEP 237: Unifying Long Integers and Integers
- PEP 238: Changing the Division Operator
- Unicode Changes
- PEP 227: Nested Scopes
- New and Improved Modules
- Interpreter Changes and Fixes
- Other Changes and Fixes
- Acknowledgements
- What’s New in Python 2.1
- Introduction
- PEP 227: Nested Scopes
- PEP 236: __future__ Directives
- PEP 207: Rich Comparisons
- PEP 230: Warning Framework
- PEP 229: New Build System
- PEP 205: Weak References
- PEP 232: Function Attributes
- PEP 235: Importing Modules on Case-Insensitive Platforms
- PEP 217: Interactive Display Hook
- PEP 208: New Coercion Model
- PEP 241: Metadata in Python Packages
- New and Improved Modules
- Other Changes and Fixes
- Acknowledgements
- What’s New in Python 2.0
- Introduction
- What About Python 1.6?
- New Development Process
- Unicode
- List Comprehensions
- Augmented Assignment
- String Methods
- Garbage Collection of Cycles
- Other Core Changes
- Porting to 2.0
- Extending/Embedding Changes
- Distutils: Making Modules Easy to Install
- XML Modules
- Module changes
- New modules
- IDLE Improvements
- Deleted and Deprecated Modules
- Acknowledgements
- What’s New In Python 3.2
- The Python Tutorial
- 1. Whetting Your Appetite
- 2. Using the Python Interpreter
- 3. An Informal Introduction to Python
- 4. More Control Flow Tools
- 5. Data Structures
- 6. Modules
- 7. Input and Output
- 8. Errors and Exceptions
- 9. Classes
- 10. Brief Tour of the Standard Library
- 10.1. Operating System Interface
- 10.2. File Wildcards
- 10.3. Command Line Arguments
- 10.4. Error Output Redirection and Program Termination
- 10.5. String Pattern Matching
- 10.6. Mathematics
- 10.7. Internet Access
- 10.8. Dates and Times
- 10.9. Data Compression
- 10.10. Performance Measurement
- 10.11. Quality Control
- 10.12. Batteries Included
- 11. Brief Tour of the Standard Library – Part II
- 12. What Now?
- 13. Interactive Input Editing and History Substitution
- 14. Floating Point Arithmetic: Issues and Limitations
- Python Setup and Usage
- The Python Language Reference
- 1. Introduction
- 2. Lexical analysis
- 3. Data model
- 3.1. Objects, values and types
- 3.2. The standard type hierarchy
- 3.3. Special method names
- 3.3.1. Basic customization
- 3.3.2. Customizing attribute access
- 3.3.3. Customizing class creation
- 3.3.4. Customizing instance and subclass checks
- 3.3.5. Emulating callable objects
- 3.3.6. Emulating container types
- 3.3.7. Emulating numeric types
- 3.3.8. With Statement Context Managers
- 3.3.9. Special method lookup
- 4. Execution model
- 5. Expressions
- 5.1. Arithmetic conversions
- 5.2. Atoms
- 5.3. Primaries
- 5.4. The power operator
- 5.5. Unary arithmetic and bitwise operations
- 5.6. Binary arithmetic operations
- 5.7. Shifting operations
- 5.8. Binary bitwise operations
- 5.9. Comparisons
- 5.10. Boolean operations
- 5.11. Conditional expressions
- 5.12. Lambdas
- 5.13. Expression lists
- 5.14. Evaluation order
- 5.15. Operator precedence
- 6. Simple statements
- 6.1. Expression statements
- 6.2. Assignment statements
- 6.3. The assert statement
- 6.4. The pass statement
- 6.5. The del statement
- 6.6. The return statement
- 6.7. The yield statement
- 6.8. The raise statement
- 6.9. The break statement
- 6.10. The continue statement
- 6.11. The import statement
- 6.12. The global statement
- 6.13. The nonlocal statement
- 7. Compound statements
- 8. Top-level components
- 9. Full Grammar specification
- The Python Standard Library
- 1. Introduction
- 2. Built-in Functions
- 3. Built-in Constants
- 4. Built-in Types
- 4.1. Truth Value Testing
- 4.2. Boolean Operations — and, or, not
- 4.3. Comparisons
- 4.4. Numeric Types — int, float, complex
- 4.5. Iterator Types
- 4.6. Sequence Types — str, bytes, bytearray, list, tuple, range
- 4.7. Set Types — set, frozenset
- 4.8. Mapping Types — dict
- 4.9. memoryview type
- 4.10. Context Manager Types
- 4.11. Other Built-in Types
- 4.12. Special Attributes
- 5. Built-in Exceptions
- 6. String Services
- 6.1. string — Common string operations
- 6.2. re — Regular expression operations
- 6.3. struct — Interpret bytes as packed binary data
- 6.4. difflib — Helpers for computing deltas
- 6.5. textwrap — Text wrapping and filling
- 6.6. codecs — Codec registry and base classes
- 6.7. unicodedata — Unicode Database
- 6.8. stringprep — Internet String Preparation
- 7. Data Types
- 7.1. datetime — Basic date and time types
- 7.2. calendar — General calendar-related functions
- 7.3. collections — Container datatypes
- 7.4. heapq — Heap queue algorithm
- 7.5. bisect — Array bisection algorithm
- 7.6. array — Efficient arrays of numeric values
- 7.7. sched — Event scheduler
- 7.8. queue — A synchronized queue class
- 7.9. weakref — Weak references
- 7.10. types — Names for built-in types
- 7.11. copy — Shallow and deep copy operations
- 7.12. pprint — Data pretty printer
- 7.13. reprlib — Alternate repr() implementation
- 8. Numeric and Mathematical Modules
- 9. Functional Programming Modules
- 10. File and Directory Access
- 10.1. os.path — Common pathname manipulations
- 10.2. fileinput — Iterate over lines from multiple input streams
- 10.3. stat — Interpreting stat() results
- 10.4. filecmp — File and Directory Comparisons
- 10.5. tempfile — Generate temporary files and directories
- 10.6. glob — Unix style pathname pattern expansion
- 10.7. fnmatch — Unix filename pattern matching
- 10.8. linecache — Random access to text lines
- 10.9. shutil — High-level file operations
- 10.10. macpath — Mac OS 9 path manipulation functions
- 11. Data Persistence
- 11.1. pickle — Python object serialization
- 11.2. copyreg — Register pickle support functions
- 11.3. shelve — Python object persistence
- 11.4. marshal — Internal Python object serialization
- 11.5. dbm — Interfaces to Unix “databases”
- 11.6. sqlite3 — DB-API 2.0 interface for SQLite databases
- 12. Data Compression and Archiving
- 13. File Formats
- 13.1. csv — CSV File Reading and Writing
- 13.2. configparser — Configuration file parser
- 13.2.1. Quick Start
- 13.2.2. Supported Datatypes
- 13.2.3. Fallback Values
- 13.2.4. Supported INI File Structure
- 13.2.5. Interpolation of values
- 13.2.6. Mapping Protocol Access
- 13.2.7. Customizing Parser Behaviour
- 13.2.8. Legacy API Examples
- 13.2.9. ConfigParser Objects
- 13.2.10. RawConfigParser Objects
- 13.2.11. Exceptions
- 13.3. netrc — netrc file processing
- 13.4. xdrlib — Encode and decode XDR data
- 13.5. plistlib — Generate and parse Mac OS X .plist files
- 14. Cryptographic Services
- 15. Generic Operating System Services
- 15.1. os — Miscellaneous operating system interfaces
- 15.2. io — Core tools for working with streams
- 15.3. time — Time access and conversions
- 15.4. argparse — Parser for command-line options, arguments and sub-commands
- 15.5. optparse — Parser for command line options
- 15.5.1. Background
- 15.5.2. Tutorial
- 15.5.3. Reference Guide
- 15.5.3.1. Creating the parser
- 15.5.3.2. Populating the parser
- 15.5.3.3. Defining options
- 15.5.3.4. Option attributes
- 15.5.3.5. Standard option actions
- 15.5.3.6. Standard option types
- 15.5.3.7. Parsing arguments
- 15.5.3.8. Querying and manipulating your option parser
- 15.5.3.9. Conflicts between options
- 15.5.3.10. Cleanup
- 15.5.3.11. Other methods
- 15.5.4. Option Callbacks
- 15.5.4.1. Defining a callback option
- 15.5.4.2. How callbacks are called
- 15.5.4.3. Raising errors in a callback
- 15.5.4.4. Callback example 1: trivial callback
- 15.5.4.5. Callback example 2: check option order
- 15.5.4.6. Callback example 3: check option order (generalized)
- 15.5.4.7. Callback example 4: check arbitrary condition
- 15.5.4.8. Callback example 5: fixed arguments
- 15.5.4.9. Callback example 6: variable arguments
- 15.5.5. Extending optparse
- 15.6. getopt — C-style parser for command line options
- 15.7. logging — Logging facility for Python
- 15.7.1. Logger Objects
- 15.7.2. Handler Objects
- 15.7.3. Formatter Objects
- 15.7.4. Filter Objects
- 15.7.5. LogRecord Objects
- 15.7.6. LogRecord attributes
- 15.7.7. LoggerAdapter Objects
- 15.7.8. Thread Safety
- 15.7.9. Module-Level Functions
- 15.7.10. Module-Level Attributes
- 15.7.11. Integration with the warnings module
- 15.8. logging.config — Logging configuration
- 15.9. logging.handlers — Logging handlers
- 15.9.1. StreamHandler
- 15.9.2. FileHandler
- 15.9.3. NullHandler
- 15.9.4. WatchedFileHandler
- 15.9.5. RotatingFileHandler
- 15.9.6. TimedRotatingFileHandler
- 15.9.7. SocketHandler
- 15.9.8. DatagramHandler
- 15.9.9. SysLogHandler
- 15.9.10. NTEventLogHandler
- 15.9.11. SMTPHandler
- 15.9.12. MemoryHandler
- 15.9.13. HTTPHandler
- 15.9.14. QueueHandler
- 15.9.15. QueueListener
- 15.10. getpass — Portable password input
- 15.11. curses — Terminal handling for character-cell displays
- 15.12. curses.textpad — Text input widget for curses programs
- 15.13. curses.ascii — Utilities for ASCII characters
- 15.14. curses.panel — A panel stack extension for curses
- 15.15. platform — Access to underlying platform’s identifying data
- 15.16. errno — Standard errno system symbols
- 15.17. ctypes — A foreign function library for Python
- 15.17.1. ctypes tutorial
- 15.17.1.1. Loading dynamic link libraries
- 15.17.1.2. Accessing functions from loaded dlls
- 15.17.1.3. Calling functions
- 15.17.1.4. Fundamental data types
- 15.17.1.5. Calling functions, continued
- 15.17.1.6. Calling functions with your own custom data types
- 15.17.1.7. Specifying the required argument types (function prototypes)
- 15.17.1.8. Return types
- 15.17.1.9. Passing pointers (or: passing parameters by reference)
- 15.17.1.10. Structures and unions
- 15.17.1.11. Structure/union alignment and byte order
- 15.17.1.12. Bit fields in structures and unions
- 15.17.1.13. Arrays
- 15.17.1.14. Pointers
- 15.17.1.15. Type conversions
- 15.17.1.16. Incomplete Types
- 15.17.1.17. Callback functions
- 15.17.1.18. Accessing values exported from dlls
- 15.17.1.19. Surprises
- 15.17.1.20. Variable-sized data types
- 15.17.2. ctypes reference
- 15.17.1. ctypes tutorial
- 16. Optional Operating System Services
- 16.1. select — Waiting for I/O completion
- 16.2. threading — Thread-based parallelism
- 16.3. multiprocessing — Process-based parallelism
- 16.3.1. Introduction
- 16.3.2. Reference
- 16.3.2.1. Process and exceptions
- 16.3.2.2. Pipes and Queues
- 16.3.2.3. Miscellaneous
- 16.3.2.4. Connection Objects
- 16.3.2.5. Synchronization primitives
- 16.3.2.6. Shared ctypes Objects
- 16.3.2.7. Managers
- 16.3.2.8. Proxy Objects
- 16.3.2.9. Process Pools
- 16.3.2.10. Listeners and Clients
- 16.3.2.11. Authentication keys
- 16.3.2.12. Logging
- 16.3.2.13. The multiprocessing.dummy module
- 16.3.3. Programming guidelines
- 16.3.4. Examples
- 16.4. concurrent.futures — Launching parallel tasks
- 16.5. mmap — Memory-mapped file support
- 16.6. readline — GNU readline interface
- 16.7. rlcompleter — Completion function for GNU readline
- 16.8. dummy_threading — Drop-in replacement for the threading module
- 16.9. _thread — Low-level threading API
- 16.10. _dummy_thread — Drop-in replacement for the _thread module
- 17. Interprocess Communication and Networking
- 17.1. subprocess — Subprocess management
- 17.2. socket — Low-level networking interface
- 17.3. ssl — TLS/SSL wrapper for socket objects
- 17.4. signal — Set handlers for asynchronous events
- 17.5. asyncore — Asynchronous socket handler
- 17.6. asynchat — Asynchronous socket command/response handler
- 18. Internet Data Handling
- 18.1. email — An email and MIME handling package
- 18.1.1. email.message: Representing an email message
- 18.1.2. email.parser: Parsing email messages
- 18.1.3. email.generator: Generating MIME documents
- 18.1.4. email.mime: Creating email and MIME objects from scratch
- 18.1.5. email.header: Internationalized headers
- 18.1.6. email.charset: Representing character sets
- 18.1.7. email.encoders: Encoders
- 18.1.8. email.errors: Exception and Defect classes
- 18.1.9. email.utils: Miscellaneous utilities
- 18.1.10. email.iterators: Iterators
- 18.1.11. email: Examples
- 18.1.12. Package History
- 18.1.13. Differences from mimelib
- 18.2. json — JSON encoder and decoder
- 18.3. mailcap — Mailcap file handling
- 18.4. mailbox — Manipulate mailboxes in various formats
- 18.5. mimetypes — Map filenames to MIME types
- 18.6. base64 — RFC 3548: Base16, Base32, Base64 Data Encodings
- 18.7. binhex — Encode and decode binhex4 files
- 18.8. binascii — Convert between binary and ASCII
- 18.9. quopri — Encode and decode MIME quoted-printable data
- 18.10. uu — Encode and decode uuencode files
- 18.1. email — An email and MIME handling package
- 19. Structured Markup Processing Tools
- 19.1. html — HyperText Markup Language support
- 19.2. html.parser — Simple HTML and XHTML parser
- 19.3. html.entities — Definitions of HTML general entities
- 19.4. XML Processing Modules
- 19.5. XML vulnerabilities
- 19.6. xml.etree.ElementTree — The ElementTree XML API
- 19.7. xml.dom — The Document Object Model API
- 19.7.1. Module Contents
- 19.7.2. Objects in the DOM
- 19.7.2.1. DOMImplementation Objects
- 19.7.2.2. Node Objects
- 19.7.2.3. NodeList Objects
- 19.7.2.4. DocumentType Objects
- 19.7.2.5. Document Objects
- 19.7.2.6. Element Objects
- 19.7.2.7. Attr Objects
- 19.7.2.8. NamedNodeMap Objects
- 19.7.2.9. Comment Objects
- 19.7.2.10. Text and CDATASection Objects
- 19.7.2.11. ProcessingInstruction Objects
- 19.7.2.12. Exceptions
- 19.7.3. Conformance
- 19.8. xml.dom.minidom — Minimal DOM implementation
- 19.9. xml.dom.pulldom — Support for building partial DOM trees
- 19.10. xml.sax — Support for SAX2 parsers
- 19.11. xml.sax.handler — Base classes for SAX handlers
- 19.12. xml.sax.saxutils — SAX Utilities
- 19.13. xml.sax.xmlreader — Interface for XML parsers
- 19.14. xml.parsers.expat — Fast XML parsing using Expat
- 20. Internet Protocols and Support
- 20.1. webbrowser — Convenient Web-browser controller
- 20.2. cgi — Common Gateway Interface support
- 20.3. cgitb — Traceback manager for CGI scripts
- 20.4. wsgiref — WSGI Utilities and Reference Implementation
- 20.5. urllib.request — Extensible library for opening URLs
- 20.5.1. Request Objects
- 20.5.2. OpenerDirector Objects
- 20.5.3. BaseHandler Objects
- 20.5.4. HTTPRedirectHandler Objects
- 20.5.5. HTTPCookieProcessor Objects
- 20.5.6. ProxyHandler Objects
- 20.5.7. HTTPPasswordMgr Objects
- 20.5.8. AbstractBasicAuthHandler Objects
- 20.5.9. HTTPBasicAuthHandler Objects
- 20.5.10. ProxyBasicAuthHandler Objects
- 20.5.11. AbstractDigestAuthHandler Objects
- 20.5.12. HTTPDigestAuthHandler Objects
- 20.5.13. ProxyDigestAuthHandler Objects
- 20.5.14. HTTPHandler Objects
- 20.5.15. HTTPSHandler Objects
- 20.5.16. FileHandler Objects
- 20.5.17. FTPHandler Objects
- 20.5.18. CacheFTPHandler Objects
- 20.5.19. UnknownHandler Objects
- 20.5.20. HTTPErrorProcessor Objects
- 20.5.21. Examples
- 20.5.22. Legacy interface
- 20.5.23. urllib.request Restrictions
- 20.6. urllib.response — Response classes used by urllib
- 20.7. urllib.parse — Parse URLs into components
- 20.8. urllib.error — Exception classes raised by urllib.request
- 20.9. urllib.robotparser — Parser for robots.txt
- 20.10. http.client — HTTP protocol client
- 20.11. ftplib — FTP protocol client
- 20.12. poplib — POP3 protocol client
- 20.13. imaplib — IMAP4 protocol client
- 20.14. nntplib — NNTP protocol client
- 20.15. smtplib — SMTP protocol client
- 20.16. smtpd — SMTP Server
- 20.17. telnetlib — Telnet client
- 20.18. uuid — UUID objects according to RFC 4122
- 20.19. socketserver — A framework for network servers
- 20.20. http.server — HTTP servers
- 20.21. http.cookies — HTTP state management
- 20.22. http.cookiejar — Cookie handling for HTTP clients
- 20.23. xmlrpc.client — XML-RPC client access
- 20.24. xmlrpc.server — Basic XML-RPC servers
- 21. Multimedia Services
- 21.1. audioop — Manipulate raw audio data
- 21.2. aifc — Read and write AIFF and AIFC files
- 21.3. sunau — Read and write Sun AU files
- 21.4. wave — Read and write WAV files
- 21.5. chunk — Read IFF chunked data
- 21.6. colorsys — Conversions between color systems
- 21.7. imghdr — Determine the type of an image
- 21.8. sndhdr — Determine type of sound file
- 21.9. ossaudiodev — Access to OSS-compatible audio devices
- 22. Internationalization
- 23. Program Frameworks
- 23.1. turtle — Turtle graphics
- 23.1.1. Introduction
- 23.1.2. Overview of available Turtle and Screen methods
- 23.1.3. Methods of RawTurtle/Turtle and corresponding functions
- 23.1.4. Methods of TurtleScreen/Screen and corresponding functions
- 23.1.5. Public classes
- 23.1.6. Help and configuration
- 23.1.7. Demo scripts
- 23.1.8. Changes since Python 2.6
- 23.1.9. Changes since Python 3.0
- 23.2. cmd — Support for line-oriented command interpreters
- 23.3. shlex — Simple lexical analysis
- 23.1. turtle — Turtle graphics
- 24. Graphical User Interfaces with Tk
- 24.1. tkinter — Python interface to Tcl/Tk
- 24.2. tkinter.ttk — Tk themed widgets
- 24.3. tkinter.tix — Extension widgets for Tk
- 24.4. tkinter.scrolledtext — Scrolled Text Widget
- 24.5. IDLE
- 24.6. Other Graphical User Interface Packages
- 25. Development Tools
- 25.1. pydoc — Documentation generator and online help system
- 25.2. doctest — Test interactive Python examples
- 25.3. unittest — Unit testing framework
- 25.4. 2to3 - Automated Python 2 to 3 code translation
- 25.5. test — Regression tests package for Python
- 25.6. test.support — Utilities for the Python test suite
- 26. Debugging and Profiling
- 27. Python Runtime Services
- 27.1. sys — System-specific parameters and functions
- 27.2. sysconfig — Provide access to Python’s configuration information
- 27.3. builtins — Built-in objects
- 27.4. __main__ — Top-level script environment
- 27.5. warnings — Warning control
- 27.6. contextlib — Utilities for with-statement contexts
- 27.7. abc — Abstract Base Classes
- 27.8. atexit — Exit handlers
- 27.9. traceback — Print or retrieve a stack traceback
- 27.10. __future__ — Future statement definitions
- 27.11. gc — Garbage Collector interface
- 27.12. inspect — Inspect live objects
- 27.13. site — Site-specific configuration hook
- 27.14. fpectl — Floating point exception control
- 27.15. distutils — Building and installing Python modules
- 28. Custom Python Interpreters
- 29. Importing Modules
- 30. Python Language Services
- 30.1. parser — Access Python parse trees
- 30.2. ast — Abstract Syntax Trees
- 30.3. symtable — Access to the compiler’s symbol tables
- 30.4. symbol — Constants used with Python parse trees
- 30.5. token — Constants used with Python parse trees
- 30.6. keyword — Testing for Python keywords
- 30.7. tokenize — Tokenizer for Python source
- 30.8. tabnanny — Detection of ambiguous indentation
- 30.9. pyclbr — Python class browser support
- 30.10. py_compile — Compile Python source files
- 30.11. compileall — Byte-compile Python libraries
- 30.12. dis — Disassembler for Python bytecode
- 30.13. pickletools — Tools for pickle developers
- 31. Miscellaneous Services
- 32. MS Windows Specific Services
- 33. Unix Specific Services
- 33.1. posix — The most common POSIX system calls
- 33.2. pwd — The password database
- 33.3. spwd — The shadow password database
- 33.4. grp — The group database
- 33.5. crypt — Function to check Unix passwords
- 33.6. termios — POSIX style tty control
- 33.7. tty — Terminal control functions
- 33.8. pty — Pseudo-terminal utilities
- 33.9. fcntl — The fcntl() and ioctl() system calls
- 33.10. pipes — Interface to shell pipelines
- 33.11. resource — Resource usage information
- 33.12. nis — Interface to Sun’s NIS (Yellow Pages)
- 33.13. syslog — Unix syslog library routines
- 34. Undocumented Modules
- Extending and Embedding the Python Interpreter
- 1. Extending Python with C or C++
- 1.1. A Simple Example
- 1.2. Intermezzo: Errors and Exceptions
- 1.3. Back to the Example
- 1.4. The Module’s Method Table and Initialization Function
- 1.5. Compilation and Linkage
- 1.6. Calling Python Functions from C
- 1.7. Extracting Parameters in Extension Functions
- 1.8. Keyword Parameters for Extension Functions
- 1.9. Building Arbitrary Values
- 1.10. Reference Counts
- 1.11. Writing Extensions in C++
- 1.12. Providing a C API for an Extension Module
- 2. Defining New Types
- 3. Building C and C++ Extensions with distutils
- 4. Building C and C++ Extensions on Windows
- 5. Embedding Python in Another Application
- 1. Extending Python with C or C++
- Python/C API Reference Manual
- Introduction
- The Very High Level Layer
- Reference Counting
- Exception Handling
- Utilities
- Abstract Objects Layer
- Concrete Objects Layer
- Initialization, Finalization, and Threads
- Memory Management
- Object Implementation Support
- Distributing Python Modules
- 1. An Introduction to Distutils
- 2. Writing the Setup Script
- 3. Writing the Setup Configuration File
- 4. Creating a Source Distribution
- 5. Creating Built Distributions
- 6. The Python Package Index (PyPI)
- 7. Examples
- 8. Extending Distutils
- 9. Command Reference
- 10. API Reference
- 10.1. distutils.core — Core Distutils functionality
- 10.2. distutils.ccompiler — CCompiler base class
- 10.3. distutils.unixccompiler — Unix C Compiler
- 10.4. distutils.msvccompiler — Microsoft Compiler
- 10.5. distutils.bcppcompiler — Borland Compiler
- 10.6. distutils.cygwincompiler — Cygwin Compiler
- 10.7. distutils.emxccompiler — OS/2 EMX Compiler
- 10.8. distutils.archive_util — Archiving utilities
- 10.9. distutils.dep_util — Dependency checking
- 10.10. distutils.dir_util — Directory tree operations
- 10.11. distutils.file_util — Single file operations
- 10.12. distutils.util — Miscellaneous other utility functions
- 10.13. distutils.dist — The Distribution class
- 10.14. distutils.extension — The Extension class
- 10.15. distutils.debug — Distutils debug mode
- 10.16. distutils.errors — Distutils exceptions
- 10.17. distutils.fancy_getopt — Wrapper around the standard getopt module
- 10.18. distutils.filelist — The FileList class
- 10.19. distutils.log — Simple PEP 282-style logging
- 10.20. distutils.spawn — Spawn a sub-process
- 10.21. distutils.sysconfig — System configuration information
- 10.22. distutils.text_file — The TextFile class
- 10.23. distutils.version — Version number classes
- 10.24. distutils.cmd — Abstract base class for Distutils commands
- 10.25. Creating a new Distutils command
- 10.26. distutils.command — Individual Distutils commands
- 10.27. distutils.command.bdist — Build a binary installer
- 10.28. distutils.command.bdist_packager — Abstract base class for packagers
- 10.29. distutils.command.bdist_dumb — Build a “dumb” installer
- 10.30. distutils.command.bdist_msi — Build a Microsoft Installer binary package
- 10.31. distutils.command.bdist_rpm — Build a binary distribution as a Redhat RPM and SRPM
- 10.32. distutils.command.bdist_wininst — Build a Windows installer
- 10.33. distutils.command.sdist — Build a source distribution
- 10.34. distutils.command.build — Build all files of a package
- 10.35. distutils.command.build_clib — Build any C libraries in a package
- 10.36. distutils.command.build_ext — Build any extensions in a package
- 10.37. distutils.command.build_py — Build the .py/.pyc files of a package
- 10.38. distutils.command.build_scripts — Build the scripts of a package
- 10.39. distutils.command.clean — Clean a package build area
- 10.40. distutils.command.config — Perform package configuration
- 10.41. distutils.command.install — Install a package
- 10.42. distutils.command.install_data — Install data files from a package
- 10.43. distutils.command.install_headers — Install C/C++ header files from a package
- 10.44. distutils.command.install_lib — Install library files from a package
- 10.45. distutils.command.install_scripts — Install script files from a package
- 10.46. distutils.command.register — Register a module with the Python Package Index
- 10.47. distutils.command.check — Check the meta-data of a package
- Installing Python Modules
- Python HOWTOs
- Python Advocacy HOWTO
- Porting Python 2 Code to Python 3
- Choosing a Strategy
- Python 3 and 3to2
- Python 2 and 2to3
- Support Python 2.7
- Try to Support Python 2.6 and Newer Only
- Supporting Python 2.5 and Newer Only
- Handle Common “Gotchas”
- Eliminate -3 Warnings
- Run 2to3
- Verify & Test
- Python 2/3 Compatible Source
- Other Resources
- Porting Extension Modules to Python 3
- Curses Programming with Python
- Descriptor HowTo Guide
- Functional Programming HOWTO
- Logging HOWTO
- Logging Cookbook
- Using logging in multiple modules
- Multiple handlers and formatters
- Logging to multiple destinations
- Configuration server example
- Dealing with handlers that block
- Sending and receiving logging events across a network
- Adding contextual information to your logging output
- Logging to a single file from multiple processes
- Using file rotation
- Use of alternative formatting styles
- Customising LogRecord
- Subclassing QueueHandler - a ZeroMQ example
- Subclassing QueueListener - a ZeroMQ example
- An example dictionary-based configuration
- A more elaborate multiprocessing example
- Inserting a BOM into messages sent to a SysLogHandler
- Implementing structured logging
- Regular Expression HOWTO
- Socket Programming HOWTO
- Sorting HOW TO
- Unicode HOWTO
- HOWTO Fetch Internet Resources Using The urllib Package
- HOWTO Use Python in the web
- Argparse Tutorial
- Python Frequently Asked Questions
- General Python FAQ
- Programming FAQ
- Design and History FAQ
- Why does Python use indentation for grouping of statements?
- Why am I getting strange results with simple arithmetic operations?
- Why are floating-point calculations so inaccurate?
- Why are Python strings immutable?
- Why must ‘self’ be used explicitly in method definitions and calls?
- Why can’t I use an assignment in an expression?
- Why does Python use methods for some functionality (e.g. list.index()) but functions for other (e.g. len(list))?
- Why is join() a string method instead of a list or tuple method?
- How fast are exceptions?
- Why isn’t there a switch or case statement in Python?
- Can’t you emulate threads in the interpreter instead of relying on an OS-specific thread implementation?
- Why can’t lambda forms contain statements?
- Can Python be compiled to machine code, C or some other language?
- How does Python manage memory?
- Why doesn’t CPython use a more traditional garbage collection scheme?
- Why isn’t all memory freed when CPython exits?
- Why are there separate tuple and list data types?
- How are lists implemented?
- How are dictionaries implemented?
- Why must dictionary keys be immutable?
- Why doesn’t list.sort() return the sorted list?
- How do you specify and enforce an interface spec in Python?
- Why are default values shared between objects?
- Why is there no goto?
- Why can’t raw strings (r-strings) end with a backslash?
- Why doesn’t Python have a “with” statement for attribute assignments?
- Why are colons required for the if/while/def/class statements?
- Why does Python allow commas at the end of lists and tuples?
- Library and Extension FAQ
- Extending/Embedding FAQ
- Can I create my own functions in C?
- Can I create my own functions in C++?
- Writing C is hard; are there any alternatives?
- How can I execute arbitrary Python statements from C?
- How can I evaluate an arbitrary Python expression from C?
- How do I extract C values from a Python object?
- How do I use Py_BuildValue() to create a tuple of arbitrary length?
- How do I call an object’s method from C?
- How do I catch the output from PyErr_Print() (or anything that prints to stdout/stderr)?
- How do I access a module written in Python from C?
- How do I interface to C++ objects from Python?
- I added a module using the Setup file and the make fails; why?
- How do I debug an extension?
- I want to compile a Python module on my Linux system, but some files are missing. Why?
- What does “SystemError: _PyImport_FixupExtension: module yourmodule not loaded” mean?
- How do I tell “incomplete input” from “invalid input”?
- How do I find undefined g++ symbols __builtin_new or __pure_virtual?
- Can I create an object class with some methods implemented in C and others in Python (e.g. through inheritance)?
- When importing module X, why do I get “undefined symbol: PyUnicodeUCS2*”?
- Python on Windows FAQ
- How do I run a Python program under Windows?
- How do I make Python scripts executable?
- Why does Python sometimes take so long to start?
- How do I make an executable from a Python script?
- Is a *.pyd file the same as a DLL?
- How can I embed Python into a Windows application?
- How do I keep editors from inserting tabs into my Python source?
- How do I check for a keypress without blocking?
- How do I emulate os.kill() in Windows?
- How do I extract the downloaded documentation on Windows?
- Graphic User Interface FAQ
- “Why is Python Installed on my Computer?” FAQ
- Glossary
- About these documents
- Reporting Bugs
- Copyright
- History and License