Gudea

Gudea ��
Ruler of Lagash
Diorite statue of Gudea, prince of Lagash, dedicated to the god Ningishzida, Louvre Museum.
Reign	c. 2144–2124 BC
Predecessor	Ur-Baba
Successor	Ur-Ningirsu
Dynasty	Kings of Lagash

Lagash is located in Near East

Gudea (Sumerian: ��, Gu₃-de₂-a) was a ruler (ensi) of the state of Lagash in Southern Mesopotamia who ruled c. 2144–2124 BC. He probably did not come from the city, but had married Ninalla, daughter of the ruler Ur-Baba (2164–2144 BC) of Lagash, thus gaining entrance to the royal house of Lagash. He was succeeded by his son Ur-Ningirsu. Gudea ruled at a time when the center of Sumer was ruled by the Gutian dynasty, and when Ishtup-Ilum ruled to the north in Mari.^[1] Under Gudea, Lagash had a golden age, and seemed to enjoy a high level of independence from the Gutians.^[2]

Inscriptions

Inscriptions mention temples built by Gudea in Ur, Nippur, Adab, Uruk and Bad-Tibira. This indicates the growing influence of Gudea in Sumer. His predecessor, Urbaba, had already made his daughter Enanepada high priestess of Nanna at Ur, which indicates a great deal of political power as well. The 20 years of his reign are all known by name; the main military exploit seems to have occurred in his Year 6, called the "Year when Anshan was smitten with weapons".^[3]

Title

Gudea Ensi Lagashki, "Gudea, Governor of Lagash", in an inscription.

Cylinder seal of Gudea. It reads "Gudea, patesi of Lagash; Lugal-me, scribe, thy servant".^[4]

Gudea chose the title of énsi (town-king or governor), not the more exalted lugal (Akkadian šarrum), although he did style himself "god of Lagash". Gudea claimed to have conquered Elam and Anshan, but his inscriptions emphasize the building of irrigation channels and temples, and the creation of precious gifts to the gods.^[5] Materials for his buildings and statues were brought from all parts of western Asia: cedar wood from the Amanus mountains, quarried stones from Lebanon, copper from northern Arabia, gold and precious stones from the desert between Canaan and Egypt, diorite from Magan (Oman), and timber from Dilmun (Bahrain).^[6]^[7]^[8]

As the power of the Akkadian empire waned, Lagaš again declared independence, this time under Puzer-Mama, who declared himself lugal of Lagaš. Thereafter, this title would not be associated with Lagaš, at least until the end of the Gudean period. Lagašite rulers, including Ur-Ningirsu and Ur-Bau, whose reigns predated Gudea, referred to themselves as énsi, or governor, of Lagaš, and reserved the term lugal only for their gods or as a matter of rank in a relationship, but never as a political device. The continued use of lugal in reference to deities seems to indicate a conscious attempt on the parts of the rulers to assume a position of humility in relation to the world—whether this was honest humility or a political ploy is unknown.

Statues of Gudea

Sculpture of the head of Sumerian ruler Gudea, c. 2150 BC

Twenty-six statues of Gudea have been found so far during excavations of Telloh (ancient Girsu) with most of the rest coming from the art trade. The early statues were made of limestone, steatite and alabaster; later, when wide-ranging trade-connections had been established, the more costly exotic diorite was used. Diorite had already been used by old Sumerian rulers (Statue of Entemena). These statues include inscriptions describing trade, rulership and religion. These were one of many types of Neo-Sumerian art forms.

Reference to Goa

The first known reference to Goa in India possibly appears as Gubi in a Cuneiform dating to King Gudea's time.^[9] At the time, Sumerians had established trade contacts with India.^[9]

Religion

Foundation figurines of gods in copper alloy, reign of Gudea, c. 2150 BCE, from the temple of Ningirsu at Girsu (British Museum, London).

Votive stele of Gudea, ruler of Lagash, to the temple of Ningirsu: Gudea being led by Ningishzida into the presence of a deity who is seated on a throne. From Girsu, Iraq. 2144-2124 BCE. Ancient Orient Museum, Istanbul

Sacred basin, a gift from Gudea to the temple of Ningirsu. From Girsu, Iraq. 2144-2122 BCE. Ancient Orient Museum, Istanbul

Diorite mortar, an offering from Gudea to Enlil. From Nippur, Iraq. 2144-2124 BCE. Ancient Orient Museum, Istanbul

The pleas to the gods under Gudea and his successors appear more creative and honest: whereas the Akkadian kings followed a rote pattern of cursing the progeny and tearing out the foundations of those that vandalize a stele, the Lagašite kings send various messages. Times were violent after the Akkadian empire lost power over southern Mesopotamia, and the god receiving the most attention from Gudea was Ningirsu—a god of battle. Though there is only one mention of martial success on the part of Gudea, the many trappings of war which he builds for Ningirsu indicate a violent era. Southern Mesopotamian cities defined themselves through their worship, and the decision on Gudea's part for Lagaš to fashion regalia of war for its gods is indicative of the temperament of the times.

Though obviously the foundation and progeny curse was not the only religious invocation by the political powers during the Akkadian empire, it demonstrates a certain standardization, and with it, stagnation, of the position of the gods that likely did not sit well with the people of Lagaš. Ur-Ningirsu I, with whom the Gudean dynasty of Lagaš begins, leaves little in the way of inscriptions, and though some mention of various gods seems to indicate a more central role, it is not until Gudea that there can be a side-by-side comparison with the old curse of Sargon of Akkad. The inscription on a statue of Gudea as architect of the House of Ningirsu,^[10] warns the reader of doom if the words are altered, but there is a startling difference between the warnings of Sargon or his line and the warnings of Gudea. The one is length; Gudea's curse lasts nearly a quarter of the inscription's considerable length,^[11] and another is creativity. The gods will not merely reduce the offender's progeny to ash and destroy his foundations, no, they will, "let him sit down in the dust instead of on the seat they set up for him". He will be "slaughtered like a bull… seized like an aurochs by his fierce horn".^[12]

But these differences, though demonstrating a Lagašite respect of religious figures simply in the amount of time and energy they required, are not as telling as the language Gudea uses to justify any punishment. Whereas Sargon or Naram-Sin simply demand punishment to any who change their words, based on their power, Gudea defends his words through tradition, “since the earliest days, since the seed sprouted forth, no one was (ever) supposed to alter the utterance of a ruler of Lagaš who, after building the Eninnu for my lord Ningirsu, made things function as they should”.^[13] Changing the words of Naram-Sin, the living god, is treason, because he is the king. But changing the words of Gudea, simple governor of Lagaš, is unjust, because he made things work right.

Reforms

The social reforms instituted during Gudea's rulership, which included the cancellation of debts and allowing women to own family land, may have been honest reform or a return to old Lagašite custom.

His era was especially one of artistic development. But it was Ningirsu who received the majority of Gudea's attention. Ningirsu the war god, for whom Gudea built maces, spears, and axes, all appropriately named for the destructive power of Ningirsu—enormous and gilt. However, the devotion for Ningirsu was especially inspired by the fact that this was Gudea's personal god and that Ningirsu was since ancient times the main god of the Lagashite region (together with his spouse Ba'u or Baba).

In matters of trade, Lagash under Gudea had extensive commercial communications with distant realms. According to his own records, Gudea brought cedars from the Amanus and Lebanon mountains in Syria, diorite from eastern Arabia, copper and gold from central and southern Arabia and from Sinai, while his armies were engaged in battles in Elam on the east.^[14]

The Gudea cylinders, written after the life of Gudea, paints an attractive picture of southern Mesopotamia during the Lagaš supremacy. In it, “The Elamites came to him from Elam… loaded with wood on their shoulders… in order to build Ningirsu’s House” (p. 78), the general tone being one of brotherly love in an area that has known only regional conflict.

Gudea built more than the House of Ningirsu, he restored tradition to Lagaš. His use of the title ensi, when he obviously held enough political influence, both in Lagaš and in the region, to justify lugal, demonstrates the same political tact as his emphasis on the power of the divine.

Ur-Ningirsu II, the next ruler of Lagaš, took as his title, "Ur-Ningirsu, ruler of Lagaš, son of Gudea, ruler of Lagaš, who had built Ningirsu’s house" (p. 183).

International relations

Location of foreign lands for the Mesopotamians, including Meluhha.

Main article: Indus-Mesopotamia relations

In an inscription, Gudea referred to the Meluhhans who came to Sumer to sell gold dust, carnelian etc...^[14] In another inscription, he mentioned his victory over the territories of Magan, Meluhha, Elam and Amurru.^[14]

In the Gudea cylinders, Gudea mentions that "I will spread in the world respect for my Temple, under my name the whole universe will gather in it, and Magan and Meluhha will come down from their mountains to attend" (cylinder A, IX).^[15] In cylinder B, XIV, he mentions his procurement of "blocks of lapis lazuli and bright carnelian from Meluhha."^[16]

Later influence

Gudea's appearance is recognizable today because he had numerous statues or idols, depicting him with unprecedented, lifelike realism, placed in temples throughout Sumer. Gudea took advantage of artistic development because he evidently wanted posterity to know what he looked like. And in that he has succeeded—a feat available to him as royalty, but not to the common people who could not afford to have statues engraved of themselves.

Gudea, following Sargon, was one of the first rulers to claim divinity for himself, or have it claimed for him after his death. Some of his exploits were later added to the Gilgamesh Epic (N. K. Sandars, 1972, The Epic of Gilgamesh).

Following Gudea, the influence of Lagaš declined, until it suffered a military defeat by Ur-Nammu, whose Third Dynasty of Ur then became the reigning power in Southern Mesopotamia.

Important artifacts

The "Libation vase of Gudea" with the dragon Mušḫuššu, dedicated to Ningishzida (21st century BC short chronology). The caduceus (right) is interpreted as depicting god Ningishzida. Inscription; ""To the god Ningiszida, his god, Gudea, Ensi (governor) of Lagash, for the prolongation of his life, has dedicated this"
Lion macehead of Gudea, Girsu.^[17]
Gudea dedication tablet to God Ningirsu: "For Ningirsu, Enlil's mighty warrior, his Master, Gudea, ensi of Lagash"
Gudea tablet: "For Hendursaga, his master, Gudea, ruler of Lagash, built his house."^[18] Vorderasiatisches Museum, Berlin
Foundation nail of Gudea, Cleveland Museum of Art
The Gudea cylinders.^[19]
Foundation nail for the temple of Ningirsu in Lagash. Reign of Gudea.
Mudbrick stamped with a cuneiform text mentioning the name of Gudea, ruler of Lagash. From Girsu, Iraq, c. 2115 BCE. Vorderasiatisches Museum, Berlin

References

^ Durand, M.L. (2008). Supplément au Dictionnaire de la Bible: TELL HARIRI/MARI: TEXTES (PDF). p. 227.
^ Corporation, Marshall Cavendish (2010). Ancient Egypt and the Near East: An Illustrated History. Marshall Cavendish. p. 54–56. ISBN 978-0-7614-7934-5.
^ Year-names for Gudea, Cuneiform Digital Library Initiative.
^ Ward, W. H. (1910). The seal cylinders of western Asia. Рипол Классик. pp. 23–24 Note 13, Seal N.38. ISBN 9785878502252.
^ Steinkeller, Piotr. Puzur-Inˇsuˇsinak at Susa: A Pivotal Episode of Early Elamite History Reconsidered. p. 299.
^ Thomason, Allison Karmel (2017). Luxury and Legitimation: Royal Collecting in Ancient Mesopotamia. Routledge. p. 87. ISBN 978-1-351-92113-8.
^ Moorey, Peter Roger Stuart (1999). Ancient Mesopotamian Materials and Industries: The Archaeological Evidence. Eisenbrauns. p. 245. ISBN 978-1-57506-042-2.
^ Thapar, Romila (1975). "A Possible Identification of Meluḫḫa, Dilmun and Makan". Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient. 18 (1): 1–42. doi:10.2307/3632219. ISSN 0022-4995. JSTOR 3632219.
^ ^a ^b Souza, Teotonio R. De (1990). Goa Through the Ages: An economic history. Concept Publishing Company. p. 2. ISBN 978-81-7022-259-0.
^ Edzard (1997), pp. 31–8.
^ Edzard (1997), pp. 36–8.
^ Edzard (1997), p. 38.
^ Edzard (1997), p. 37.
^ ^a ^b ^c "MS 2814 - The Schoyen Collection". www.schoyencollection.com.
^ "J'étendrai sur le monde le respect de mon temple, sous mon nom l'univers depuis l'horizon s'y rassemblera, et [même les pays lointains] Magan et Meluhha, sortant de leurs montagnes, y descendront" (cylindre A, IX)" in "Louvre Museum".
^ Moorey, Peter Roger Stuart (1999). Ancient Mesopotamian Materials and Industries: The Archaeological Evidence. Eisenbrauns. p. 87. ISBN 978-1-57506-042-2.
^ de Sarzec, Ernest. Découvertes en Chaldée. L. Heuzey. p. 229.
^ D. O. Edzard, The Royal inscriptions of Mesopotamia, Early periods, vol. 3/1, Gudea and His Dynasty, Toronto, 1997, p. 117-118
^ "Louvre Museum".

Sources

Edzard, Dietz-Otto (1997). Gudea and His Dynasty. University of Toronto Press. ISBN 9780802041876.
Black, J.A.; Cunningham, G.; Dahl, Jacob L.; Fluckiger-Hawker, E.; Robson, E.; Zólyomi, G. (1998). "The Electronic Text Corpus of Sumerian Literature". University of Oxford.
Frayne, Douglas R. (1993). Sargonic and Gutian Periods. University of Toronto Press.
F. Johansen, "Statues of Gudea, ancient and modern". Mesopotamia 6, 1978.
A. Parrot, Tello, vingt campagnes des fouilles (1877-1933). (Paris 1948).
N.K. Sandars, "Introduction" page 16, The Epic of Gilgamesh, Penguin, 1972.
H. Steible, "Versuch einer Chronologie der Statuen des Gudea von Lagas". Mitteilungen der Deutschen Orient-Gesellschaft 126 (1994), 81-104.

External links

The true face of Gudea. A realistic statue of Gudea shows us how he may have looked in real life.

Regnal titles
Preceded by Ur-Baba	King of Lagash ca. 22nd century BC	Succeeded by Ur-Ningirsu

Rulers of the Ancient Near East

Territories/ dates ^[1]^[2]^[3]^[4]	Egypt		Canaan	Ebla	Mari	Akshak/ Akkad	Kish	Uruk	Adab	Umma	Lagash	Ur	Elam
	Preceded by: Chronology of the Neolithic period
4000–3200 BCE	Naqada culture (4000–3100 BCE)		Proto-Cannaanites	Sumerian period (4000–2340 BCE)									Susa I
	Naqada culture (4000–3100 BCE)		Proto-Cannaanites	Pre-Dynastic period (4000–2900 BCE)									Susa I
	Naqada I Naqada II		Egypt-Mesopotamia relations	Uruk period (4000-3100 BCE) (Anonymous "King-priests") Legendary ante-deluvian rulers: In Eridu: Alulim, Alalngar, then in Bad-tibira: En-men-lu-ana, En-men-gal-ana, Dumuzid, the Shepherd, then in Larag: En-sipad-zid-ana, then in Zimbir: En-men-dur-ana, then in Shuruppag: Ubara-Tutu "then the flood swept over"^[5]									Susa II (Uruk influence or control)
3200–3100 BCE	Proto-Dynastic period (Naqada III) Early or legendary kings:
3200–3100 BCE	Upper Egypt Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes	Lower Egypt Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Nat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash
3100–2900 BCE	Early Dynastic Period First Dynasty of Egypt Narmer Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Merneith^♀ Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird		Canaanites	Jemdet Nasr period									Proto-Elamite period (Susa III) (3100-2700 BCE)
3100–2900 BCE				Great Flood
2900 BCE	Second Dynasty of Egypt Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy			Early Dynastic Period I (2900–2700 BCE)
2900 BCE				First Eblaite Kingdom (Semitic)	First kingdom of Mari (Semitic)	Kish I dynasty Jushur, Kullassina-bel Nangishlishma, En-tarah-ana Babum, Puannum, Kalibum
2800 BCE						Kalumum Zuqaqip Atab Mashda Arwium Etana Balih En-me-nuna Melem-Kish Barsal-nuna		Uruk I dynasty Mesh-ki-ang-gasher
2800 BCE								Enmerkar ("conqueror of Aratta")
2700 BCE				Early Dynastic Period II (2700–2600 BCE)
						Zamug, Tizqar, Ilku Iltasadum		Lugalbanda Dumuzid, the Fisherman
						En-me-barage-si ("made the land of Elam submit")^[6]
						Aga of Kish		Gilgamesh					Old Elamite period (2700–1500 BCE) Indus-Mesopotamia relations
2600 BCE	Third Dynasty of Egypt Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni			Early Dynastic Period III (2600–2340 BCE)
				Sagisu Abur-lim Agur-lim Ibbi-Damu Baba-Damu		Kish II dynasty (5 kings) Uhub Mesilim		Ur-Nungal Udulkalama Labashum			Lagash En-hegal Lugalshaengur	Ur A-Imdugud Ur-Pabilsag Meskalamdug (Queen Puabi) Akalamdug
						Kish II dynasty (5 kings) Uhub Mesilim		Enun-dara-anna Mes-he Melamanna Lugal-kitun	Adab Nin-kisalsi Me-durba Lugal-dalu		Lagash En-hegal Lugalshaengur
2575 BCE	Old Kingdom of Egypt Fourth Dynasty of Egypt Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis				Ur I dynasty Mesannepada "King of Ur and Kish", victorious over Uruk
2500 BCE			Phoenicia (2500-539 BCE)		Second kingdom of Mari (Semitic) Ikun-Shamash Iku-Shamagan Ansud Sa'umu Ishtup-Ishar Ikun-Mari Iblul-Il Nizi	Akshak dynasty Unzi Undalulu	Kish III dynasty Ku-Baba	Uruk II dynasty Enshakushanna	Mug-si	Umma I dynasty Pabilgagaltuku	Lagash I dynasty Ur-Nanshe Akurgal	A'annepada Meskiagnun Elulu Balulu	Awan dynasty Peli Tata Ukkutahesh Hishur
2450 BCE	Fifth Dynasty of Egypt Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas			Enar-Damu Ishar-Malik						Ush Enakalle		A'annepada Meskiagnun Elulu Balulu	Awan dynasty Peli Tata Ukkutahesh Hishur
2450 BCE				Enar-Damu Ishar-Malik						Ush Enakalle		Elamite invasions (3 kings)^[7]	Shushuntarana Napilhush
2425 BCE				Kun-Damu		Eannatum (King of Lagash, Sumer, Akkad, conqueror of Elam)
2400 BCE				Adub-Damu Igrish-Halam Irkab-Damu		Urur	Kish IV dynasty Puzur-Suen Ur-Zababa	Lugal-kinishe-dudu Lugal-kisalsi	E-iginimpa'e Meskigal	Ur-Lumma Il Gishakidu (Queen Bara-irnun)	Enannatum Entemena Enannatum II Enentarzi	Ur II dynasty Nanni Mesh-ki-ang-Nanna II	Kiku-siwe-tempti
2380 BCE	Sixth Dynasty of Egypt Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah			Adab dynasty Lugalannemundu "King of the four quarters of the world"
2370 BCE				Isar-Damu	Enna-Dagan Ikun-Ishar Ishqi-Mari	Invasion of Mari Anbu, Anba, Bazi, Zizi of Mari, Limer, Sharrum-iter^[7]				Ukush	Lugalanda Urukagina		Luh-ishan
2350 BCE				Isar-Damu	Enna-Dagan Ikun-Ishar Ishqi-Mari	Puzur-Nirah Ishu-Il Shu-Sin	Uruk III dynasty Lugalzagesi (Governor of Umma, King of all Sumer)						Luh-ishan
2340 BCE					Akkadian Period (2340–2150 BCE)
2340 BCE				Akkadian Empire (Semitic) Sargon of Akkad Rimush Manishtushu									Akkadian Governors: Eshpum Ilshu-rabi Epirmupi Ili-ishmani
2250 BCE				Naram-Sin							Lugal-ushumgal (vassal of the Akkadians)
2200 BCE	First Intermediate Period Seventh Dynasty of Egypt Eighth Dynasty of Egypt			Second Eblaite Kingdom (Semitic) (Vassals of UR III)	Shakkanakku dynasty (Semitic) Ididish Shu-Dagan Ishma-Dagan (Vassals of the Akkadians)	Shar-Kali-Sharri					Lugal-ushumgal (vassal of the Akkadians)
2200 BCE						Igigi, Imi, Nanum, Ilulu (3 years) Dudu Shu-turul		Uruk IV dynasty Ur-nigin Ur-gigir			Lagash II dynasty Puzer-Mama Ur-Ningirsu I Pirig-me Lu-Baba Lu-gula Ka-ku		Hishep-Ratep Helu Khita Puzur-Inshushinak
2150 BCE	Ninth Dynasty of Egypt Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut				Neo-Sumerian Period (2150–2000 BCE)
					Nûr-Mêr Ishtup-Ilum Ishgum-Addu Apil-kin	Gutian dynasty (21 kings) La-erabum Si'um		Kuda (Uruk) Puzur-ili Ur-Utu		Umma II dynasty Lugalannatum (vassal of the Gutians)	Ur-Baba Gudea Ur-Ningirsu Ur-gar Nam-mahani
					Nûr-Mêr Ishtup-Ilum Ishgum-Addu Apil-kin	Tirigan					Ur-Baba Gudea Ur-Ningirsu Ur-gar Nam-mahani
2125 BCE	Tenth Dynasty of Egypt Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare				Iddi-ilum Ili-Ishar Tura-Dagan Puzur-Ishtar Hitial-Erra Hanun-Dagan (Vassals of Ur III)^[8]	Uruk V dynasty Utu-hengal
2100 BCE						Ur III dynasty "Kings of Ur, Sumer and Akkad" Ur-Nammu Shulgi Amar-Sin Shu-Sin Ibbi-Sin
2050 BCE
2000 BCE	Middle Kingdom of Egypt Eleventh Dynasty of Egypt Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV
circa 2000 BCE				Amorite invasions				Elamite invasions Kindattu (Shimashki Dynasty)
2025-1763 BCE	Twelfth Dynasty of Egypt Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu^♀			Third Eblaite Kingdom (Semitic) Ibbit-Lim Immeya Indilimma	Old Assyrian Empire (2025–1378 BCE) Puzur-Ashur I Shalim-ahum Ilu-shuma Erishum I Ikunum Sargon I Puzur-Ashur II Naram-Sin Erishum II Shamshi-Adad I Ishme-Dagan I Mut-Ashkur Rimush Asinum Ashur-dugul Ashur-apla-idi Nasir-Sin Sin-namir Ipqi-Ishtar Adad-salulu Adasi Bel-bani Libaya Sharma-Adad I Iptar-Sin Bazaya Lullaya Shu-Ninua Sharma-Adad II Erishum III Shamshi-Adad II Ishme-Dagan II Shamshi-Adad III Ashur-nirari I Puzur-Ashur III Enlil-nasir I Nur-ili Ashur-shaduni Ashur-rabi I Ashur-nadin-ahhe I Enlil-Nasir II Ashur-nirari II Ashur-bel-nisheshu Ashur-rim-nisheshu Ashur-nadin-ahhe II	Isin-Larsa period (Amorites) Dynasty of Isin: Ishbi-Erra Shu-Ilishu Iddin-Dagan Ishme-Dagan Lipit-Eshtar Ur-Ninurta Bur-Suen Lipit-Enlil Erra-imitti Enlil-bani Zambiya Iter-pisha Ur-du-kuga Suen-magir Damiq-ilishu Dynasty of Larsa: Naplanum Emisum Samium Zabaia Gungunum Abisare Sumuel Nur-Adad Sin-Iddinam Sin-Eribam Sin-Iqisham Silli-Adad Warad-Sin Rim-Sin I (...) Rim-Sin II Uruk VI dynasty: Alila-hadum Sumu-binasa Naram-Sin of Uruk Sîn-kāšid Sîn-iribam Sîn-gāmil Ilum-gamil Anam of Uruk Irdanene Rim-Anum Nabi-ilišu							Sukkalmah dynasty Siwe-Palar-Khuppak
1894–1595 BCE	Second Intermediate Period Thirteenth Dynasty of Egypt Fourteenth Dynasty of Egypt		Abraham (Biblical)	Yamhad		First Babylonian dynasty ("Old Babylonian Period") (Amorites) Sumu-abum Sumu-la-El Sin-muballitSabium Apil-Sin Sin-muballit Hammurabi Samsu-iluna Abi-eshuh Ammi-ditana Ammi-saduqa Samsu-Ditana Early Kassite rulers					Second Babylonian dynasty ("Sealand Dynasty") Ilum-ma-ili Itti-ili-nibi Damqi-ilishu Ishkibal Shushushi Gulkishar ^mDIŠ+U-EN Peshgaldaramesh Ayadaragalama Akurduana Melamkurkurra Ea-gamil
1894–1595 BCE	Sixteenth Dynasty Abydos Dynasty Seventeenth Dynasty	Fifteenth Dynasty of Egypt ("Hyksos") Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Sakir-Har Khyan Apepi Khamudi		Mitanni (1600–1260 BCE) Kirta Shuttarna I Parshatatar
1531–1155 BCE	New Kingdom of Egypt Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt Ahmose I Amenhotep I			Mitanni (1600–1260 BCE) Kirta Shuttarna I Parshatatar		Third Babylonian dynasty (Kassites) Agum-Kakrime Burnaburiash I Kashtiliash III Ulamburiash Agum III Karaindash Kadashman-harbe I Kurigalzu I Kadashman-Enlil I Burnaburiash II Kara-hardash Nazi-Bugash Kurigalzu II Nazi-Maruttash Kadashman-Turgu Kadashman-Enlil II Kudur-Enlil Shagarakti-Shuriash Kashtiliashu IV Enlil-nadin-shumi Kadashman-Harbe II Adad-shuma-iddina Adad-shuma-usur Meli-Shipak II Marduk-apla-iddina I Zababa-shuma-iddin Enlil-nadin-ahi							Middle Elamite period (1500–1100 BCE) Kidinuid dynasty Igehalkid dynasty Untash-Napirisha
	Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III
	Hatshepsut^♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten^♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb			Hittite Empire
	Nineteenth Dynasty of Egypt Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret^♀			Hittite Empire		Elamite Empire Shutrukid dynasty Shutruk-Nakhunte
1155–1025 BCE	Twentieth Dynasty of Egypt Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI Third Intermediate Period Twenty-first Dynasty of Egypt Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II		Phoenicia Kingdom of Israel Saul Ish-bosheth David Solomon	Syro-Hittite states	Middle Assyrian Empire Eriba-Adad I Ashur-uballit I Enlil-nirari Arik-den-ili Adad-nirari I Shalmaneser I Tukulti-Ninurta I Ashur-nadin-apli Ashur-nirari III Enlil-kudurri-usur Ninurta-apal-Ekur Ashur-dan I Ninurta-tukulti-Ashur Mutakkil-Nusku Ashur-resh-ishi I Tiglath-Pileser I Asharid-apal-Ekur Ashur-bel-kala Eriba-Adad II Shamshi-Adad IV Ashurnasirpal I Shalmaneser II Ashur-nirari IV Ashur-rabi II Ashur-resh-ishi II Tiglath-Pileser II Ashur-dan II	Fourth Babylonian dynasty ("Second Dynasty of Isin") Marduk-kabit-ahheshu Itti-Marduk-balatu Ninurta-nadin-shumi Nebuchadnezzar I Enlil-nadin-apli Marduk-nadin-ahhe Marduk-shapik-zeri Adad-apla-iddina Marduk-ahhe-eriba Marduk-zer-X Nabu-shum-libur							Neo-Elamite period (1100–540 BCE)
1025–934 BCE						Fifth, Sixth, Seventh, Eighth Babylonian dynasties ("Period of Chaos") Simbar-shipak Ea-mukin-zeri Kashshu-nadin-ahi Eulmash-shakin-shumi Ninurta-kudurri-usur I Shirikti-shuqamuna Mar-biti-apla-usur Nabû-mukin-apli							Neo-Elamite period (1100–540 BCE)
911–745 BCE	Twenty-second Dynasty of Egypt Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV Twenty-third Dynasty of Egypt Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Menkheperre Ini Twenty-fourth Dynasty of Egypt Tefnakht Bakenranef		Kingdom of Samaria Kingdom of Judah		Neo-Assyrian Empire Adad-nirari II Tukulti-Ninurta II Ashurnasirpal II Shalmaneser III Shamshi-Adad V Shammuramat (regent) Adad-nirari III Shalmaneser IV Ashur-Dan III Ashur-nirari V	Ninth Babylonian Dynasty Ninurta-kudurri-usur II Mar-biti-ahhe-iddina Shamash-mudammiq Nabu-shuma-ukin I Nabu-apla-iddina Marduk-zakir-shumi I Marduk-balassu-iqbi Baba-aha-iddina (five kings) Ninurta-apla-X Marduk-bel-zeri Marduk-apla-usur Eriba-Marduk Nabu-shuma-ishkun Nabonassar Nabu-nadin-zeri Nabu-shuma-ukin II Nabu-mukin-zeri							Humban-Tahrid dynasty Urtak Teumman Ummanigash Tammaritu I Indabibi Humban-haltash III
745–609 BCE	Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt ("Black Pharaohs") Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun		Neo-Assyrian Empire (Sargonid dynasty) Tiglath-Pileser^† Shalmaneser^† Marduk-apla-iddina II Sargon^† Sennacherib^† Marduk-zakir-shumi II Marduk-apla-iddina II Bel-ibni Ashur-nadin-shumi^† Nergal-ushezib Mushezib-Marduk Esarhaddon^† Ashurbanipal Ashur-etil-ilani Sinsharishkun Sin-shumu-lishir Ashur-uballit II
745–609 BCE	Assyrian conquest of Egypt
626–539 BCE	Twenty-sixth Dynasty of Egypt Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III		Neo-Babylonian Empire Nabopolassar Nebuchadnezzar II Amel-Marduk Neriglissar Labashi-Marduk Nabonidus										Median Empire Deioces Phraortes Madius Cyaxares Astyages
539–331 BCE	Twenty-seventh Dynasty of Egypt (Achaemenid conquest of Egypt)		Achaemenid Empire Cyrus Cambyses Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II Artaxerxes II Artaxerxes III Artaxerxes IV Darius III
	Twenty-eighth Dynasty of Egypt Twenty-ninth Dynasty of Egypt Thirtieth Dynasty of Egypt
	Thirty-first Dynasty of Egypt
331–141 BCE	Ptolemaic dynasty Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy Keraunos Ptolemy II Philadelphus Ptolemy III Euergetes Ptolemy IV Philopator Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra (regent) Ptolemy VI Philometor Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Cleopatra II Philometor Soter Ptolemy VIII Physcon Cleopatra III Ptolemy IX Lathyros Ptolemy X Alexander Berenice III Ptolemy XI Alexander Ptolemy XII Auletes Cleopatra VI Tryphaena Berenice IV Epiphanea Ptolemy XIII Ptolemy XIV Cleopatra VII Philopator Ptolemy XV Caesarion		Hellenistic Period Argead dynasty: Alexander I Philip Alexander II Antigonus Seleucid Empire: Seleucus I Antiochus I Antiochus II Seleucus II Seleucus III Antiochus III Seleucus IV Antiochus IV Antiochus V Demetrius I Alexander III Demetrius II Antiochus VI Dionysus Diodotus Tryphon Antiochus VII Sidetes
141–30 BCE			Kingdom of Judea Simon Thassi John Hyrcanus Aristobulus I Alexander Jannaeus Salome Alexandra Hyrcanus II Aristobulus II Antigonus II Mattathias	Alexander II Zabinas Seleucus V Philometor Antiochus VIII Grypus Antiochus IX Cyzicenus Seleucus VI Epiphanes Antiochus X Eusebes Antiochus XI Epiphanes Demetrius III Eucaerus Philip I Philadelphus Antiochus XII Dionysus Antiochus XIII Asiaticus Philip II Philoromaeus	Parthian Empire Mithridates I Phraates Hyspaosines Artabanus Mithridates II Gotarzes Mithridates III Orodes I Sinatruces Phraates III Mithridates IV Orodes II Phraates IV Tiridates II Musa Phraates V Orodes III Vonones I Artabanus II Tiridates III Artabanus II Vardanes I Gotarzes II Meherdates Vonones II Vologases I Vardanes II Pacorus II Vologases II Artabanus III Osroes I
30 BCE–116 CE	Roman Empire
30 BCE–116 CE	(Roman conquest of Egypt) Province of Egypt		Judea	Syria
116-117 CE			Judea		Province of Mesopotamia under Trajan			Parthamaspates of Parthia
117–224 CE			Syria Palaestina		Province of Mesopotamia	Sinatruces II Mithridates V Vologases IV Osroes II Vologases V Vologases VI Artabanus IV
224–270 CE			Syria Palaestina		Province of Mesopotamia	Sasanian Empire Province of Asoristan Ardashir I Shapur I Hormizd I Bahram I Bahram II Bahram III Narseh Hormizd II Adur Narseh Shapur II Ardashir II Shapur III Bahram IV Yazdegerd I Shapur IV Khosrow Bahram V Yazdegerd II Hormizd III Peroz I Balash Kavad I Jamasp Kavad I Khosrow I Hormizd IV Khosrow II Bahram VI Chobin Vistahm
270–273 CE	Palmyrene Empire Vaballathus Zenobia Antiochus
273–395 CE	Roman Empire
273–395 CE	Province of Egypt		Syria Palaestina	Syria	Province of Mesopotamia
395–618 CE	Byzantine Empire
395–618 CE	Byzantine Egypt		Palaestina Prima, Palaestina Secunda	Byzantine Syria	Byzantine Mesopotamia
618–628 CE	(Sasanian conquest of Egypt) Province of Egypt Shahrbaraz Sahralanyozan Shahrbaraz		Sasanian Empire Province of Asoristan Khosrow II Kavad II
628–641 CE	Byzantine Empire					Ardashir III Shahrbaraz Khosrow III Boran Shapur-i Shahrvaraz Azarmidokht Farrukh Hormizd Hormizd VI Khosrow IV Boran Yazdegerd III Peroz III Narsieh
628–641 CE	Byzantine Egypt		Palaestina Prima, Palaestina Secunda	Byzantine Syria	Byzantine Mesopotamia
639–651 CE	Muslim conquest of Egypt		Muslim conquest of the Levant		Muslim conquest of Mesopotamia and Persia
Rulers of Ancient Central Asia
^ W. Hallo; W. Simpson (1971). The Ancient Near East. New York: Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovich. pp. 48–49. ^ "Rulers of Mesopotamia". cdli.ox.ac.uk. University of Oxford, CNRS. ^ Thomas, Ariane; Potts, Timothy (2020). Mesopotamia: Civilization Begins. Getty Publications. p. 14. ISBN 978-1-60606-649-2. ^ Roux, Georges (1992). Ancient Iraq. Penguin Books Limited. pp. 532–534 (Chronological Tables). ISBN 978-0-14-193825-7. ^ "The Sumerian king list: translation". etcsl.orinst.ox.ac.uk. Archived from the original on 2008-05-08. ^ Per Sumerian King List ^ ^a ^b Per Sumerian King List ^ Unger, Merrill F. (2014). Israel and the Aramaeans of Damascus: A Study in Archaeological Illumination of Bible History. Wipf and Stock Publishers. p. 5. ISBN 978-1-62564-606-4.

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