Scripting Repository Reference

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Bash Script Order

Bash If Statement

Bash Loops

Bash Case Statement

Bash Script Input

Bash Find

Bash Example Script - MP3 Processor

Python

Python Input/Outout

Bash Scriping Reference

Shell Script Order and Checklist

1. Shebang (#!/usr/bin/env bash)
2. Comments /file header
3. Global variables
4. Functions
--Use local vairables
5. Main script contents
6. Exit with an exit status.
--Exit <STATUS> at various exit points

IF Statement

#!/usr/bin/env bash
# Basic if statement
if [ $1 -gt 100 ]
  then
  echo Hey that\'s a large number.
  pwd
fi
date

For, While, Until

#!/usr/bin/env bash
#For Loop
for i in $( ls ); do
  echo item: $i
done

#!/usr/bin/env bash
#While Loop
COUNTER=0
while [  $COUNTER -lt 10 ]; do
  echo The counter is $COUNTER
  let COUNTER=COUNTER+1 
done

#!/usr/bin/env bash
#Until Loop
COUNTER=20
until [  $COUNTER -lt 10 ]; do
  echo COUNTER $COUNTER
  let COUNTER-=1
done

AWK

$ ifconfig lo | awk -F" " '/TX/{ print toupper($3 $4 $5 $6 $7) }'
77BYTES6543(6.5KB)
0DROPPED0OVERRUNS0

• -F => Flag to specify text delmiter
• /*/ => Create regex match
• { print toupper($0) } => Awk commands

$ awk -F"," ' BEGIN {OFS=" => "} {  print toupper($1), tolower($2), $3 } END { print "Rows: " NR }' employees

• -F"," - Sets input field seperator
• OFS=" => " - Sets the default field seperator for output
• BEGIN ... END - Expression runs a start, end once and containing commands once for each matching input
• $1, $2, $3 - Variables indicating field one, two, and three.
• NR - Variable containing row count for document.

AWK example

40K lines + access log - Using AWK to parse

access.awk

BEGIN { FS=" "; print "Unknown status codes:"; }
{ if($9 == "404") FOF++}
{ if($9 == "200") TOO++}
{ if($9 == "206") TOX++}
{ if($9 == "500") FOO++}
{ if($9 == "304") TOF++}
{ if($9 == "301") TON++}
{ ip[$1]++ }
{ if( $9 != "404" && $9 != "200" && $9 != "304" && $9 != "301" && $9 != "206" && $9 != "500" ) \
printf "%-4s\n",$9}
END {
printf "\nKnown status code occurrences:\n\
200: %-5s\n\
206: %-5s\n\
301: %-5s\n\
304: %-5s\n\
404: %-5s\n\
500: %-5s\n\
Together that is %-5s codes\n\
Document contains %-5s codes leaving %s unknown codes\n\
\n\
Highest frequency access: (> 400)\n"\
, TOO, TOX, TON, TOF, FOF, FOO, ( FOF + TOO + TOF + TON + FOO + TOX), NR, (NR - (FOF + TOO + TOF + TON + FOO + TOX));

for (i in ip)
{if(ip[i] >= 400) printf "%-15s has accessed %-5s times.\n", i, ip[i]}
}

• { if(EXPRESSIONS) CMD; }
  • If statment expressions contained in curly braces
• { ip[$1]++ }
  • Setting key for associative array as the value of field one, then incrementing the key value using ++
• printf "%-5s: %-10s", value1, value2;
  • Formatted print %-5s string with 5 characters & %-10s string with 10 characters
  • Values passed after comma
• for (i in ip)...
  • Nested for loop to iterate over associative array

Output

Unknown status codes:
405 
405 
405 
405 
405 
501 
405 

Known status code occurrences:
200: 39755
206: 21   
301: 85   
304: 725  
404: 3772 
500: 14   
Together that is 44372 codes
Document contains 44379 codes leaving 7 unknown codes

Highest frequency access: (> 400)
213.150.254.81  has accessed 434   times.
205.167.170.15  has accessed 13967 times.
37.1.206.196    has accessed 438   times.
84.112.161.41   has accessed 712   times.
148.251.50.49   has accessed 1929  times.
52.22.118.215   has accessed 734   times.

catalog xml awk parse

$ awk 'BEGIN { FS="[<>]"; RS="\n\n"; OFS=" "} $0 ~ search  {print $4 ": " $5, $8 ": " $9, $12 ": " $13 }' search="screw driver" catalog.xml

• ' ' - use half quote to begin awk command logic
• FS, RS and OFS - Field seperator, Row seperator, and Output field seperator.
• $0 - Matched row
• ~ - Initiates regex match on following token
• search - This is an awk variable

output

name: screw driver price: 10 stock: 200

users.awk

BEGIN {
	printf "%8s %11s\n","Username", "Login date"
	print "==========================="
}
!(/Never logged in/ || /^Username/ || /^root/) {
	count++
	if( NF == 8 )
		printf "%16s %2s %3s %4s\n", $1, $2, $3, $4
	else
		printf "%16s %2s %3s %4s\n", $1, $2, $3, $4
}
END { 
	print "==========================="
print " Total Number of Users Processed: ", count
}

termnial

$ lastlog | awk -f users.awk

SED

Using sed commands

• $ sed ' p ' /etc/passwd
  • The command p will print the patter space (matched lines)
• $ sed -n ' p ' /etc/passwd
  • The -n option supresses standard outpit so only matched lines display
• $ sed -n '1,$ p ' /etc/passwd
  • adding a range will print only those matched lines
  • $ character represents end of document
• $ sudo sed -i.bak ' /^#/ d ; /^$/ d' /etc/debconf.conf
  • /*/ d ; => Regex Match (d flag to delete match)
  • -i[suffex] => Flag to in-place edit, suffix to create backup of original with sufix appended
• $ sed ' [range] s/<string>/<replacement>/ ' /etc/passwd
• $ sed -n ' /^#!/ s@/bin/bash@/binsh@g p' /~/script.sh
  • The substitute command in sed is your search and replace tool
  • The character following the s represents the delimiters, often the / is used
  • the @ is a delimiter as in the example
  • ^ prefix matches beginning of string
  • / / characters contain the regular expression
  • p to print the output of sed
• $ sed ' /\.dat$/ d' /etc/debconf.conf
  • Delete the matched line
• $ sed ' /^Template/ i # Here is a comment' /etc/debconf.conf
  • Insert new line before the matched line
• sed ' /^Template/ a # Here is a comment' /etc/debconf.conf
  • Appends a new line after the matched line
• $ sed ' { /^[F,f]ilename:/ i # The following line is the filename /^[D,d]river:/ d } ' /etc/debconf.conf
  • Multiple expressions may be used with sed by including brace brackets within the quoted sed instructions

SED Substitution Groups

$ sed ' s@\([^,]*\),\([^,]*\)@\U\1,\L\2@ ' employees

s@

• Substitution

\([^,]*\),\([^,]*\)

• Grouping defined with escaped parentheses
• Group 1 and 2 are created

@\U\1,\L\2/@

• Replace string: upper cases first grouping
• Insert comma and transform lowercase group two

SED and SSH

$ ssh -t user@server sudo -i.bak -f /tmp/ntp.sed

• -t - Assigns a TTY allowing for sudo password
• -i.bak - creates backup with .bak extension
• -f /tmp/ntp.sed - Sed file on remote server

sed - Code reuse

$ cat ntp.sed
/^server 0/ i ntp.example.com
/^server\s[0-9]\.ubuntu/ d
$ sed -f ntp.sed /etc/ntp.conf

• To resuse sed expressions, use sed files
• The sed file can be referenced with the -f option
• Once we check the file behaves as expected we can implement the -i option

SCP

$ scp ntp.sed user@192.168.1.1:/tmp/

• Secure copy
  • ntp.sed - local path
  • :/tmp/ - remote path

GREP

paranoia@paranoia:~$ cat /proc/cpuinfo | grep -iA4 Name
model name	: Intel(R) Core(TM) i5-4590T CPU @ 2.00GHz
stepping	: 3
cpu MHz		: 1995.388
cache size	: 6144 KB
physical id	: 0

• i - Case insensitve
• A# - Display match + '#' amount of lines after match
• B# - Display '#' lines before match
• C# - Display '#' lines before and after match

grep 'rotate [^4]$' /etc/logrotate.d/*

• [^4] - Carret character negates the following character from the match
• []$ - Dollar symbox suffix enforces match on end characters of string

grep -E 'rotate [46]$' /etc/logrotate.d/*

• [46] - Matches 4 or 6
• []$ - Dollar symbol suffix enforces match on charactes at end of string
• -E - Extended regular expression

REGEX - Regular Expressions

• Matches the words Color, Colour, color, or colour
• ? - 0 or 1 matches of preceeding character.

Anchors

• '^'
  • Start/beginning of string
• '^root'
  • String starts with root
• '$'
  • End of string
• '4$'
  • String ends with 4

Ranges

• '[A-Za-z]'
  • any letter
• '[0-9]'
  • Any digit
• '[a-z_]'
  • Lowercase a-z or underscore character
• '[349]'
  • Matches 3, 4, or 9

Boundaries

• '\s'
  • Whitespace
• '\ssystem'
  • Matches "file system"
• '\b'
  • Word boundary
• '\bsystem'
  • Matches "file system" and "file-system"

Quanitifiers

• 'u*'
  • Matches u zero or more times
• 'u?'
  • Matches u zero or once only (optional)
• 'u+'
  • Matches one or more occurrences of u
• 'u{3}'
  • Matches exactly three occurrences: uuu

Find Command

#This command will find only file with names ending with .mp3 within the current directory 
#-execdir to execute rm command on each item. -exec & -execdir replace {} with each item returned.
#"{}" should be quoted if find is being invoked from a shell.  
#This a much more secure method for invoking commands, as it avoids race conditions during resolution of 
#the paths to the matched files.
find ./ -type f -name "*.mp3" -execdir rm "{}" \;

User Input

OLD_DIR=$(pwd)
echo "Please enter the file extension to search for";
read EXTENSION;
echo "The extension given was: $EXTENSION"; 

echo "Please enter the directory to search(Press enter to select pwd)";
read DIRECTORY;
if [ -z "$DIRECTORY" ]
then
	DIRECTORY=$(pwd);
	echo "Searching for directory $DIRECTORY";
else
	echo "Searching for directory $DIRECTORY";
fi
if [ -d "$DIRECTORY" ]
then
	echo "Directory found. Moving to $DIRECTORY";
	PROCEED="y";
else
	echo "No matching path was found."
	echo "pwd : $(pwd)";
	echo "Do you want to switch to pwd? (y/n)";
	read PROCEED;
	[ "$PROCEED" == "y" ] && DIRECTORY=$(pwd);
fi
if [ "$PROCEED" == "y" ]
then	
	cd "$DIRECTORY";
	echo "Working in $(pwd)";
else
	echo "Opperation aborted";
	exit 1;
fi
#Code continued

Case Statements

#!/usr/bin/env bash
#Select an option to run commands.
EXIT=false;
while [ "$EXIT" == "false"  ]; do
	echo "Select the option that you want";
	echo "1. Show disk usage.";
	echo "2. Show system uptime";
	echo "3. Show current users logged into the system";
	echo "Enter 'q' to quit the script";
	read SELECTION

	case "$SELECTION" in
		1)
		df;
		;;
		2)
		uptime;
		;;
		3)
		who;
		;;
		q)
		echo "Goodbye";
		EXIT=true;
		;;
		*)
		echo "Invalid option";
		;;
	esac
done

mp3_processor

#!/usr/bin/env bash
#Set return strings
NO_DIR_ARG="Passed argument is not a directory"
NO_ARG="No directory given. Defaulting to pwd: $(pwd)"
YES_DIR="Directory detected: $1"

#Safely return to origination directory
DIR=$(pwd) 
#Ensure that argument passed is a dir and not a file otherwise exit
[ $# -gt 0 ] && [ -f $1 ] && echo "$NO_DIR" && exit 2
#set working dir using DIR var to either pwd or the argument if applicapable
[ $# -eq 0 ] && DIR=$(pwd) && echo "$NO_ARG" || DIR=$1 && echo "$YES_DIR"
#Make sure that var DIR matches type directory before we cd, otherwise we exit
[ -d "$DIR" ] && cd "$DIR" || exit 1

#setting nullglob on for *.mp3 detection prior to action
shopt -s nullglob
found=0

#check that files exist and set var found if so
for i in *.mp3; do
  echo "file $i found" 
	found=1
done
shopt -u nullglob
[ $found -eq 0 ] && echo "Directory is empty"

#If something was found during nullglob check then we can proceed with the rest of the script logic.
if(( "$found" > "0"))
then
#List all files in directory and act on each
	for i in $(ls); do
#Use PCRE case insensitive regex to make sure each item matches *.mp3 format
		if( ls $i | grep "(.mp3){1}" -Pi )
		then
#Move/rename file to include formatted date concatenated with the current filename
			mv $i "$(date +%F)-$i"
			echo "Transformed item: $i into => '$(date +%F)-$i'"	
		fi
	done
fi

cd "$DIR"
#Done with opperation

Python Scriping Reference

Input/Output JSON

import json
with open('input.json', 'r') as input:
	obj = json.load(input)
	with open('output.txt', 'w') as output:
		output.write(obj['name'] + "'s Hobbies:\n")
		for hobby in obj['hobbies']:
			output.write(hobby + "\n")

Python

• Extensible Design
• Community Involved Design
• Emphasizing Fun
• Culture

Python definitions

• REPL - (Read, Eval, Print, Loop)
• Package - A module which can contain other modules
  • Packages are generally directories
• Module - A script/application which stands alone
  • Modules are generally files
• sys.path - List of directories Python searches for modules
• Absolute Imports - Imports which us a full path to the module. from reader.reader import Reader
• Relative Impoorts - Imports which use a relative path to modules in the same package from .reader import Reader
  • Can reduce typing in deeply nested package structures
  • Promote certain forms of modifiability
  • Can aid package renaming and refactoring
  • General advice is to avoid them in most cases
• __all__ - List of attribute names imported via from module import *
• Namespace Packages - Packages wplit across several directories
  • Namespace packages have no __init__.py
  • This avoids complex initilization ordering problems
• Executable Directories - Directories containing an entry point for Python execution
• Executable Zip File - Zip file containing an entry point for Python execution
• __call__() - Special method - Callable instances
• Lambdas - Nameless function instanciators
  • Expression which evaluates to a function
  • Anonymous
  • Argument list terminated by colon, separated by commas
  • Can contain only a single expression - no statments
  • Lambdas cannot have docstrings
• callable() - Built in function

>>> def is_even(x):
...     return x%2 == 0
...
>>> callable(is_even)
True
>>> is_odd = lambda x: x%2 == 1
>>> callable(is_odd)
True
>>> callable(list)
True
>>> callable(list.append)
True
>>> class CallMe:
...     def __call__(self):
...             print("Called!")
...
>>> call_me = CallMe()
>>> callable(call_me)
True
>>> callable("This is not callable")
False  

• Extended Formal Argument Syntax
  • def extended(*args, **kwargs):
• Transposing Tables
  • using list(zip(*args) to transpose two-dimension tables of data
  • Converts rows to columns and vice-versa.
  • Zip and stargs (*args) are used in production enough to know what they are and how to spot
  • Used on an iterable series of iterable series
• local functions - Functions defined within the scope of other functions

Local Functions

def func():
        def local_func():
                a = 'hello, '
                b = 'world'
                return a + b
        x = 1
        y = 2
        return x + y

Recomended Project structure

project_name
|-> __main__.py
|-> project_name
|   |-> __init__.py
|   |-> more_source.py
|   |-> subpackage1
|   |   |-> __init__.py
|   |-> test
|       |-> __init__.py
|-> setup.py

• Pip
  • 3rd Party Libraries
  • Install/Uninstall/Dependencies/Package Groups/Versions
  • Install PIP

$ curl https://bootstrap.pypa.io/get-pip.py | python

• ipython
  • Robust interactive CLI utility

Install SomePackage with PIP

$ pip install SomePackage

Python 2 Vs Python 3

Executable Comparison

Which should you choose?

✔️ Default to Python 3 when possible

❌ Python 2.x is legacy

Executing Python Code

1. Interpreter

Executing python file using python.exe

2. REPL

Call out to python code within interactive REPL

3. Natively

"Compile and Run" (py2exe, pyinstaller, etc.)

Python Modularity Key Facts

• Python code is placed in *.py files called "modules"
• Modules can be executed directly with python3 module_name.py
• Brought into the REPL or other modules with import module_name
• Named functions defined with the def keyword def function_name(arg1, argn):
• Return from functions using return keyword with optional parameter
• Omitted return parameter or implicit return at end returns None
• Use __name__ to determine how the module is being used
• If __name == "__main__" the module is being executed
• Command line arguments are accessible through sys.argv
• The script filename is in ` sys.argv[0]```
• Docstrings are standalone literal string as the first statement of a function or a module
• Docstrings are delimited by triple quotes
• Docstrings provide help()
• Module docstrings should precede other statements
• Comments begin with # and run to the end of the line
• A special comment on the first line beginning #! controls module execution by the program loader

Objects - Summary

• Think of named references to objects rather than variables
  • Assignment attaches a name to an object
  • Assigning from one reference to another puts two name tags on the same object
• The garbage collector reclaims unreachable objects
• id() returns a unique and constant identifier
  • Rarely used in production
• The is operator determines equality of identity
• Test for equivalence using ==
• Function arguments are passed by object-reference
  • Functions can modify mutable arguments
• Reference is lost if a formal function argument is rebound
  • To change a mutable argument, replace its contents
• return also passes by object-reference
• Function arguments can be specified with defaults
• Default argument expressions evaluated once, when def is executed
• Python uses dynamic typing
  • We don't specify types in advance
• Python uses strong typing
  • Types are not coerced to match
• Names are looked up in four nested scopes
  • LEGB rule: Local, Enclosing, Global, and Built-ins
• Global references can be read from a local scope
• Use global to assign to global references from a local scope
• Everything in Python is an object
  • This includes modules and functions
  • They can be treated just like other objects
• import and def result in binding to named references
• type can be used to determine the type of an object
• dir() can be used to introspect an object and get its attributes.
• The name of a function or module object can be accessed through its __name__ attribute
• The docstring for a function or module object can be accessed through its __doc__ attribute
• Use len() to measure the length of a string
• You can multiply a string by an integer
  • Produces a new string with multiple copies of the operand
  • this is called the "repetition" operation

Collections - A Few Types

• tuple - Heterogeneous immutable sequences
• str - Homogeneous immutable sequence of Unicode codepoints (characters)
• range - Arithmetic progression of integers
• list - Heterogeneous mutable sequence
• dict - Unordered mapping from unique, immutable keys to mutable values
• set - Unordered collection of unique, immutable objects

Collection Protocols

A Few Things To Avoid

1. Abusing range()

• Avoid range() for iterating over lists
• Python is not C
• Don't be un-pythonic!

• Prefer direct iteration over iterable objects such as lists

2. Do not use range()

• prefer enumerate() for counters

Exception Handling

• Raising an exception interrupts normal program flow and transfers control to an exception handler
• Exception handlers defined using the try...except construct
• try blocks define a context for detecting exceptions
• Corresponding except blocks handle specific exception types
• Python uses exceptions pervasively
  • Many build-in language features depend on them
• except blocks can capture an exception, which are often a standard type
• Programmer errors should not normally be handled
• Exceptional conditions can be normally handled
• raise without an argument re-raises the current exception
• Generally do not check for TypeErrors
• Exception objects can be converted to strings using str()
• A function's exceptions form part of its API
  • They should be documented properly
• Prefer to use built-in exception types when possible
• Use the try...finally construct to preform cleanup actions
  • May be used in conjunction with except blocks
• Output of print() can be redirected using the optional file argument
• Use and and or for combining Boolean expressions
• Return codes are too easily ignored
• Platform-specific actions can be implemented using EAFP along with catching importErrors

Comprehensions, Generators and Iterables in Python

• Specify iterable sequences
  • All generators are iterators
• Are lazily evaluated
  • The next value in the sequence is computed on demand
• Can model infinite sequences
  • Such as data streams with no definite end
• Are composable into pipelines
  • For natural stream processing
• Comprehensions are concise syntax for describing lists, sets and dictionaries
• Comprehensions operate on an iterable source object and apply an optional predicate filter and a mandatory expression, both of which are usually in terms of the current item
• Iterables are objects over which we can iterate item by item
• We retrieve an iterator from an iterable object using the built-in iter() function
• Iterators produce items one-by-one from the underlying iterable series each time they are passed to the built-in next() function
• Generator functions allow us to describe series using imperative code
• Generator functions contain at least one use of the yield keyword.
• Generators are iterators. When advanced with next() the generator starts or resumes execution up to and including the next yield
• Each call to a generator function creates a new generator object.
• Generators can maintain explicit state in local variables between iteractions.
• Generators are lazy, and so can model infinite series of data.
• Generator expressions have a similar syntactic form to list comprehensions and allow for a more declarative and concise way of creating generator objects.
• Iteration tools - Built-ins
  • sum()
  • any()
  • zip()
  • all()
  • min()
  • max()
  • enumerate()
• Standard library itertools module
  • chain()
  • islice()
  • count()
  • many more!

Classses in Python

• All types in Python have a class
• Classes define the structure and behavior of an object
• Class is determined when an object is created
  • Normally fixed for the lifetime
• Classes are the key support for Object-Oriented Programming in Python
• Classes defined using the class keyword followed by CamelCase name
• Class instances created by calling the calss as if it were a function
• Instance methods are functions defined inside the class
  • Should accept an object instance called self as the first parameter
• Methods are called using instance.method()
  • Syntactic sugar for passing self instance to method
• The optional __init__() method initialized new instances
  • If present, the constructor calls __init__()
  • __init__() is not the constructor
• Instance attributes are created simply by assigning to them
• Implementation details are denoted by a leading underscore
  • There are no public, protected or private access modifiers in Python
• Accessing implementation details can be very useful
  • Especially during development and debugging
• Class invariants should be established in the initializer
  • if the invariants can't be established raise exceptions to signal failure
• Methods can have docstrings, just like regular functions
• Classes can have docscrings
• Even within an object method calls must be preceeded with self
• You can have as many calsses and functions in a module as you wish
  • Related calsses and global functions are usually grouped together this way
• Polymorphism in Python is achieved through duc typing
• Polymorphism in Python does not use shared base classes or interfaces

Exception Handling in Python

• Strings support slicing, because they implement the sequence protocol
• Following the Law of Demeter can reduce coupling
• We can nest comprehensions
• It can sometimes be useful to discard the current item in a comprehension
• When dealing with one-based collections it's often easier just to waste one list entry
• Don't feel compelled to use classes when a simple function will suffice
• Comprehensions or generator expressions can be split over multiple lines
• Statements can be split over multiple lines using backslash
  • Use this feature sparingly and only when it improves readability
• Use Tell! Don't ask. to avoid tight coupling between objects

Working with files

open() modes

Files and Resource Mamanagement

• files are opened using the built-in open() function which accepts a file mode to control read/write/append behavior and whether the file is to be treated as raw binary or encoded text data
• For text data you should specify a text encoding
• Text files deal with string objects and preform universal newline translation and string encoding
• Binary files deal with bytes objects with no newline translation or encoding
• When writing files, its our responsibility to provide newline characters for line breaks
• Files should always be closed after use
• Files provide various line-oriented metgods for reading, and are also iterators which yield line by line
• Files are context managers and the with-statement can be used with context managers to ensure that clean up operations, such as closing files, are preformed
• The notion of file-like-objects is loosely defined, but very usefil in practice
  • Exercise EAFP to make the most of them. Easier to Ask for Forgiveness than Permission
• Context managers aren't restricted to file-like-objects. We can use tools in the contextlib standard library module such as the closing() wrapper to create our own context managers
• help() can be used on instance objects, not just types
• Python supports bitwise operators &, | and left << and right shifts >>

Unittest - Automated and Repeatable

Key Concepts

• TestCase
  • Groups together related test functions
  • Basic unit of test organization in unittest
• fixtures
  • Code runs before and/or after each test function
• assertions
  • Specific tests for conditions and behaviors

Debugging in Python

PDB

• The Python DeBugger
  • import pdb
  • pdb.set_trace()

distutils - setup.py

from distutils.core import setup

setup(
        name = 'palindrome',
        version = '1.0',
        py_modules = ['palindrome'],

        # metadata
        author = 'Anthony Ledesma',
        author_email = 'anthonymledesma@gmail.com',
        description = 'A module for finding palindromic integers.',
        license = 'Public domain',
        keywords = 'example',
)

Shipping Working and Maintainable Code

• unittest is a framework for developing reliable automated tests
• You define test cases by subclassing from unittest.TestCase
• unittest.main() is useful for running all of the tests in a module
• setUp() and tearDown() run code before and after each test method
• Test methods are defined by creating method names that start with test_
• TestCAse.assert... methods make a test method fail when the right conditions aren't met
• Use TestCase.assertRaises() in a with-statement to check that the right exceptions are thrown in a test
• Python's standard debugger is called PDB
• PDB is a standard command-line debugger
• pdb.set_trace() can be used to stop program execution and enter the debugger
• Your REPL's prompt will change to (pdb) when you're in the debugger
• You can access PDB's built-in help system by typing help
• Use python -m pdb <script-name> to run a program under PDB from the start
• PDB's where command shows the current call stack
• PDB's next command lets execution continue to the next line of code
• PDB's continue command lets program execution continue indefinitely, or until you stop it with ctrl + c
• PDB's list command shows you the source code at your current location
• PDB's return command resumes execution until the end of the current function
• PDB's print command lets you see the values of objects in the debugger
• Use quit to exit PDB
• Virtual environments are light-weight, self-contained Python installations that any user can create
• venv accepts both a source-installation argument as well as a directory name into which a new environment will be created
• To use a virtual environment, you need to run its activate script
• When you activate a virtual environment, your prompt is modified to remind you
• The distutils package is used to help you distribute your Python code
• distutils is generally used inside a setup.py script which users run to install your software
• The main function in distutils is setup()
• setup() takes a number of arguments describing both the source files as well as metadata for the code
• The most common way to use setup.py is to install code using python setup.py install
• setup.py can also be used to generate distributions of your code
• Distributions can be zip files, tarballs, or several other formats
• Pass --help to see all of its options
• Common tools for installing third-party software are distutils and pip
• The central repository for Python packages is the Python Package Index, also called PyPi or "cheeseshop"
• To install modules with pip, use the subcommand notation pip install package-name
• divmod() calculates to quotient and remainder for a devision operation at one time
• reversed function can reverse a sequence
• You can pass -m to your Python command to have it run a module as a script
• Debugging makes it clear that Python is evaluating everything at run time
• You can use the __file__ attribute on a module to find out where its source file is located
• Third-party python is generally installed into your installations's site-packages directory
• nose is a useful tool for working with unittest based tests

Packages

• Packages are modules that contain other modules
• Packages are generally implemented as directores containing a special __init__.py file
• The __init__.py file is executred when the package is imported
• Packages can contain sub packages which themselves are implemented with __init__.py files in directories

Script Reloading Example for REPL Using importLib

In this example we utilize the 'importlib' module's reload function to refresh the python script for REPL to use

hello_world.py - Created

def sayHello():
        print("Hello, Functions!")

Bash to execute python3

Python REPL

>>> import hello_world
>>> hello_world.sayHello()
Hello, Functions!

hello_world.py - Edited

def sayHello():
        print("Hello, Again!")

Python REPL

>>> hello_world.sayHello()
Hello, Functions!
>>> import importlib
>>> importlib.reload(hello_world)
<module 'hello_world' from '/home/paranoia/development/scripting/python/hello_world/hello_world.py'>
>>> hello_world.sayHello()
Hello, Again!

Example Using Auto reload with iPython

This example hot loads a python script after file changes. This is done using iPython3 utility and the extension 'autoreload'

hello_world.py - Created

def sayHello():
        print("Hello, Again!")

iPython3 REPL

$ ipython3
Python 3.6.7 (default, Oct 22 2018, 11:32:17) 
Type "copyright", "credits" or "license" for more information.

IPython 5.5.0 -- An enhanced Interactive Python.
?         -> Introduction and overview of IPython's features.
%quickref -> Quick reference.
help      -> Python's own help system.
object?   -> Details about 'object', use 'object??' for extra details.

iPython3 REPL

In [1]: %load_ext autoreload

In [2]: %autoreload 2

In [3]: from hello_world import sayHello

In [4]: sayHello()
Hello, Again!

hello_world.py - Edited

def sayHello():
        print("Hello, Once More!")

iPython3 REPL

In [5]: sayHello()
Hello, Once More!