Tool

Language

Read-only/Writable

Formats

Comments

virt-builder

ocaml

read/write

qcow2, raw

build-simple-cdd

debootstick

mkosi

python3, configuration in INI

configurable rw or ro

UKI, DDI (GPT), squashfs/erofs, qcow, directory/chroot, cpio, kernel+initrd

Does not require privileges, can build container images and/or VM images and/or bare-metal bootable images and/or UKIs, supports multiple distributions/architectures

Kameleon

lxc-create

Shell

read/write

dir(rootfs)

Deprecated, prefer distrobuilder; linux containers create new buildroots from scripts in lxc-templates

distrobuilder

Go

read/write

dir(rootfs), tar, qcow2

Modern system container image builder for LXC, LXD and Incus

debian-rootfs

Shell

WARNING: some questionable customizations

FAI

Shell, Perl

read/write

dir, ISO, raw, qcow2, vdi, vhdx, vmdk

can do installations, chroots, disk images, cross architecture

debos

Go

Data driven rootless image creation tool. debos intro

image-bootstrap

python

Creates (chroots and) bootable virtual machine images

apt2ostree

python

boxer

genimage

C

developed by Pengutronix

dmm

python

iso, tar

very alpha, not ready for production use, similar to debos and mkosi but much larger in scope (meant to be used for appimages/installer/ppa systems eventually)

kiwi

python

read/write

iso,qcow2,raw

Also used by SUSE and Redhat, supports non-root building in a VM

debvm

shell

ext4 raw image

Create and run Debian-based VM images for various releases and architectures